Professor Abdur Raheem Kidwai [1]
In studying the modern Western discourse on ethics one is struck by the palpable tension it represents between religion and morality. It conceives religion merely as a set of dogma and rituals that links an individual to some sacred reality or supernatural entity, which may solace him in suffering and grief. In contrast, morality is seen as a body of potentially acceptable norms regulating and governing the human conduct and social relations. These norms should not, however, be tethered, in any way, to religion. This basic assumption of the Western ethical theory is symptomatic of the influence of the classical Greek thought, as reflected in the works of Plato and other Greek thinkers, which divorce morality from religion. More significantly, this underpinning of the modern Western thought is reflective of its weariness with the pre-Reformation Church. Little wonder, then, that a sharp distinction between religion and morality is to the fore in the writings of the Enlightenment period, representing the ever-growing ascendancy of secularism in public life and relegation of religion to the private domain of an individual’s life. Not surprisingly, therefore, both Marx and Freud are found insisting that if morality is subordinated to religion, it would undermine an individual’s moral responsibility.”
It explains briefly why the modern Western discourse on ethics emphasises the segregation between morality and religion, regarding the former, a public and secular entity and the latter, a private concern of an individual without any bearings whatsoever on public life. In the Western worldview, morality thus represents an all-embracing body of norms regulating not only the conduct of an individual in society, but also addressing issues and problems born of social interaction, quite independently of religion. For it is believed that in formulating and enforcing its norms morality should not make any recourse to religious teachings. Reason should act as the sole bulwark in eliciting general acceptability of morality in a community.
However, in the Qur’anic weltanschauung the twin concepts of morality and religion appear as intertwined, rather inseparable from each other. And this point comes out at its sharpest in the Qur’anic passages that lay down social laws. Apart from guiding man in matters of social interaction in all its varied forms, these passages link his conduct to the whole range of religious concerns- his relation to God, his accountability in the Hereafter and his ultimate, eternal fate. Although there is no dearth of Muslim writings, elaborating painstakingly and in finer details the social laws of the Qur’an,² this highly significant point how the Qur’an subordinates morality or one’s conduct in social interactions to religious concerns appears to have been largely overlooked in many works on the subject.
This paper attempts to study how the Qur’an interweaves the conduct of social relations to one’s relationship with God Himself. And as a result, it is not just the force of law, but an appeal to one’s good sense, conscience, God-fearingness, piety and God-consciousness that is invoked by the Qur’an in asking one to discharge well his social obligations at large. This blending of morality and religion is quite marked in the Qur’anic passages dealing with social laws. For, quite significantly, they contain an almost refrain-like reference to God’s Omniscience, the Hereafter and other divine attributes with a view to making one realise that whatever he does in relation to others is God’s concern as well. One’s conduct is subject thus not only to the dictates of law in “this world,” it would also be detrimental to his reckoning in “that world.” Needless to say, the whole exercise aims to make one doubly conscious and cautious about his conduct and to ensure social harmony.
Let us now turn to instancs in point in which the Qur’an brings about this remarkable fusion of morality and religion:
a) The Qur’anic exhortation to be fair to women in paying them their bridal-due and to orphans in performing the role of a guardian is followed by a terse note:
“God is All-Sufficent in taking account (of your deeds).3 (Al-Nisa 4:6)
b) The next passage, embodying legal injunctions about the division of inheritance, is more forthright in linking one’s conduct in such matters to the Hereafter and its dire consequences:
“Those who wrongfully eat up the property of orphans, only fill their bellies with fire. Soon they will burn in the Blazing Fire.” (Al-Nisa 4:10)
c) As a corollary to this reference to divine punishment there is another Qur’anic passage, promising immense rewards for those who carry out well their social obligations:
“And those who respect their trusts and covenants and those who stand firm in their testimonies, such will be the honored ones in the Gardens of Bliss,” (Al-Maarij 70:31-3 and 35)
As already hinted, it is worth noting that many Qur’anic passages dealing with a myriad of social laws such as on divorce, waiting period, foster-mothers, bridal-due, inheritance, contracts and bequests conclude almost invariably on a note of God’s Omniscience. Here are the examples:
“But it is lawful for you to seek out all women, except these, offering them your wealth and the protection of wedlock rather than using them for the unfettered satisfaction of lust. And in exchange of what you enjoy by marrying them, pay their bridal-due as an obligation. But there is no blame on you, if you mutually agree to alter the settlement after it has been made. Surely God is All-Knowing, All-Wise.” (Al-Nisa 4:24)
“If their intention is firm for divorce, God hears and knows all things.” (Al-Baqara 2:227)
“A divorce is only permissible twice…. it is not lawful for your (men) to take back any gifts (from your wives)… If a husband divorces his wife irrevocably, he cannot after that remarries her until after she has remarried other husband and he has divorced her… When you divorce women, and they fulfill the term of their waiting period (‘Iddah), either take them back on equitable terms or set them free on equitable terms… And know that God is well acquainted with all things.(Al-Baqara: 2:229-31 1)
“The mothers shall give suck to their offspring for two whole years if the father desires to complete the term. But he shall bear the cost of their food and clothing on equitable terms…. If you decide on a foster-mother for your offspring, there is no blame on you, provided you pay the mother what you offered on equitable terms. But fear God and know that God sees well what you do,” (AI-Baqara, 2:233)
If any of you die and leave widows behind, they shall wait four months and ten days. And God is well acquainted with what you do.” (ΑΙ- Baqara 2:234)
“God thus commands you concerning your children: the share of the male is like that of two females….. All these shares are to be given after payment of the bequest or any debts outstanding against him…. And to you belongs half of whatever has been left behind by your wives if they die childless…. And God is All-Knowing, All-Forbearing.” (AI-Nisa 4:11- 12)
“God pronounces for you the ruling: should a man die childless but have a sister…. God makes (His commandments) clear to you lest you go astray. God has full knowledge of everything.” (Al-Nisa4:176)
“Believers! Spend out of the good things you have earned and out of what We have produced for you from the earth…. God is All-Generous, All-Knowing.” (Al-Baqarah2:267-81)
“Believers! Whenever you contract a debt form one another for a known term, commit it to writing…. Let not the witnesses refuse when they are summoned (to give evidence)… do take witnesses when you settle commercial transactions with one another. And the scribe or the witness may be done no harm… God teaches you the right way and God has full knowledge of everything.” (Al-Baqarah 2:282-31)
Central to the above quoted Qur’anic passages is the unmistakable message that what transpires between two or more individuals, in day- today life at various levels of social interaction, apart from being an obvious concern of law, is preserved also in the divine record for the final reckoning. While instructing man in social behavior and prescribing appropriate laws for its observance and enforcement, the Qur’an constantly invokes the reality of the Omniscient God and the Hereafter.
In dealing with social crimes the Qur’an reaffirms the same point, though quite appropriately with a slight shift in invoking the twin concepts of repentance and divine compassion. First, committing a crime is to be shunned at all costs and if one unfortunately indulges in it, he/she should, apart form facing its legal consequences, turn in genuine repentance to the All-Compassionate God for regaining purification. Of numerous such passages in the Qur’an, only a few are quoted as an illustration:
“As for those of your women who are guilty of immoral conduct, call upon four amongst you to bear witness against them; and if they testify, confine them to houses until death do claim them, or God ordains for them some (other) way. If two men among you are guilty of lewdness, punish them both. If they repent and amend, leave them alone; for God is Oft-returning, Most Merciful.” (Al-Nisa 4:15-16)
“And those who launch a charge against chaste women, and produce not four witnesses (to support their allegations) flog them with eighty stripes…. unless they repent thereafter and mend (their conduct). For God is Oft-Forgiving, Most Merciful.” (Al-Nur 24:4-5)
“And for those who launch a charge against their spouses and have (in support) no evidence but their own….. If it were not for God’s grace and mercy on you and that God is Oft-Returning, All-Wise (you would be ruined indeed).” (Al-Nur 24:6-10)
As already indicated, what these passages signify is that one’s misdeed towards another fellow human being, be it adultery or false accusation, is subject not only to the legal provisions stated in the Qur’an, it has its bearings on one’s relationship with God Himself. For a full atonement of one’s crime one should turn immediately to God, Who is All-Forgiving and All Compassionate.
Murder, being the most heinous crime in society, is likewise a concern of both law and one’s fate in the Hereafter.
(a) “O you who believel! The law of equality is prescribed to you in cases of murder…. whoever exceeds the limits shall be in grave penalty.” (Al-Baqara 2:178)
(b) “If a man kills a believer intentionally, his recompense is Hell, to abide therein and the wrath and curse of God are upon him and a dreadful penalty is prepared for him. (Al-Nisa 493)
As is evident, dire consequences of such evil conduct extend beyond the domain of social law, to a grievous punishment in the Hereafter The Qur’an draws on such otherworldly deterrents to bring about harmony, equilibrium and tranquility in the social fabric.
The Qur’anic Surah Al-Hujurāt (49) stands out as the conspectus of its social laws. ranging from observing good manners towards the Holy Prophet (verses 1-5 and 7-8), shunning scandal-mongering and slandering (verse 6), composing mutual quarrels and maintaining the ties of brotherhood (verses 9-10), refraining from mutual ridicule, defamation and sarcasm (verse 11) to eschewing suspicion and backbiting (verse 12). What is striking is that corresponding to this detailed instruction in moral and manners is the constant reference to one or the other attribute of God. As for example, “God Who hears and knows all things” (verse 1), “Forgiveness and a great reward” (verse 3). “Oft Forgiving and Most Merciful God” (verse 5), “God being full of knowledge and wisdom” (verse 8), “God being full of love for those who are fair and just” (verse 9), “God-Fearingness and God’s mercy” (verse 10). “Oft-Returning and Most Merciful God” (verse 12), “God being full of knowledge and well acquainted with all things” (verse 13) and “Oft-Forgiving and Most Merciful God” (verse 14). The blending of morality and religion thus reaches its apex in the Surah devoted almost fully to social issues.
By linking one’s conduct to religious concerns, particularly to one’s own relationship to God and to consequences in the Hereafter, the Qur’an invests morality with a significant and effective dimension, which is conspicuous by its absence in the modern Western ethical discourse.
Islam being the natural way and final divine guidance for mankind for every time and place covers all aspects of life. Social relations and Life Style being an important part of life have naturally received their due place in the Islamic code of guidance which is based on the Holy Qur’an and Prophet Muhammad’s illustrious role model. In today’s pluralistic, multifaith society these Islamic teachings have assumed greater meaning and relevance.
On studying the primary Islamic texts, the Qur’an and Ahadith, and early Islamic history it becomes evident that Islam urges its followers to forge and maintain cordial social relations with non- Muslims. It emerges that the ideals of peaceful co-existence and tolerance characterize the Islamic way of life. Let us recapitulate the main Islamic teachings on this important issue.
The Qur’an opens, significantly enough, with the observation: “In the name of Allah Who is Most Compassionate, Most Merciful.” Throughout the Qur’an the divine attributes of love, compassion and mercy are emphasized. More importantly, the Qur’an instructs Muslims to develop the features of love and mercy for fellow human beings. It asks them to live in peace and safety with others. Being the servants of the Most Merciful Allah they should be sympathetic and merciful to all living beings, especially those with whom they interact socially, for example, their family members, neighbours and colleagues at work place. Significantly enough, Islam makes no distinction of caste, colourbor creed on this count, Muslims should behave well towards their family, friends and society members, irrespective of their faith or sect. The Qur’an speaks of Muslims as those “who enjoin patience and self- control and who urge acts kindness and compassion” (Al-Balad 90: 17).
The first and foremost Islamic teaching, which is central to cordial social and familial relations, is of maintaining the ties of kinship. In asking Muslims to respect this sacred tie, the Islamic objective is the creation of a pleasant society permeated with warmth, affection and a strong bonding of fraternity. The excellent ties within a family as the basic unit of the society would culminate in the construction of a happy society. The Qur’an repeatedly asks Muslims to act with benevolence, charity and sympathy with their near and dear ones. The crucial point is that this directive makes no distinction between one’s Muslim or non- Muslim relatives. The above point is amply illustrated by early Islamic history. As the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) made his call, inviting people to embrace Islam, many Makkan youths, impressed both by the excellence of his conduct and of his message, accepted Islam whereas their parents clung to their polytheistic ancestral faith. They even harassed and persecuted their believing sons and daughters, insisting that they revert to their ancestral faith. Even in the face of such provocation and blatant hostility on their part, the Qur’an asked Muslim youths to be respectful towards their unbelieving parents and to fulfill their obligations to them. Obviously, they were directed not to be misled by their unbelieving parents in matters of faith. However, in their family and social life they were to treat them with utmost respect and affection. (Luqmān 31: 14-15). It is on record that when Asmā’s polytheistic mother visited her, she sought the Prophet’s guidance as to how to treat her. The Prophet directed Asmā to be kind towards her unbelieving mother. It is not therefore surprising to note the consensus view among such Islamic scholars as Qurtubī, Nawāwī and Khattābī that Muslims are obliged to treat well their non- Muslim relatives. Let this, however, be clarified that a non-Muslim cannot inherit a Muslim and the vice versa. This Islamic law of inheritance has its legal compulsions and implications.
Nonetheless, a Muslim may offer financial help to such non-Muslim relatives who are not his/her inheritors.
By the same token of logic, Muslims are directed to act kindly towards their neighbours and colleagues and the poor, the needy, the orphan and the traveller. No discrimination on the grounds of faith is admissible. Muslims should extend them all help and support, financial or otherwise, without reference to their faith. The following Quranic passage brings out the above point into a sharp focus: “And they feed, for the love of Allah, the poor, the orphan and the captive, saying: We feed you for the sake of Allah alone. We do not desire any reward or thanks from you.” (Al-Insān 76: 8-9). What is more significant in the above Quranic passage is the reference to the prisoners of war. At a time when the unbelievers were bent upon obliterating the nascent Islam and Muslim community, Muslims were exhorted to take good care of the captives of a battle directed against Muslims. Such exemplary self- restraint can feature only in a divinely ordained faith. This directive was implemented in the history of Islam. Abū Uzayr ibn Umayr, the brother of Musa’b ibn Umayr, who was imprisoned following the battle of Badr testifies: “I was in some Ansārs’ custody. They followed the Prophet’s precepts so faithfully that they served me the best food while they starved themselves. It put me to shame.”
In Islamic teachings a particular mention is made of kind treatment towards one’s neighbours, be they Muslim or non-Muslim. It goes without saying that good neighbourhood is the key to firm social bonding. The Prophet repeatedly asked Muslims to behave as a model neighbor. His observation is as follows: “One, who believes in Allah and the Next Life should not hurt his/her neighbor.” (Abū Dāwūd, “Kitāb Al-Adab,” Bāb: Fī Haq al- Jiwār“). In other words, being kind to their neighbor is a characteristic of a Muslim. It is related about Abdullāh ibn Umar that he made it a point to send meal to his Jewish neighbour in view of the Prophet’s exhortations for good treatment of neighbours. Apart from offering presents neighbours, they should be invited to meal, visited and looked after in general. There is consensus of opinion among Muslim scholars and jurisprudents that no distinction is admissible regarding a Muslim or non-Muslim in these social obligations to neighbours.
Non-Muslims are to be treated well in a general, broad sense, as is the thrust of several Ahādith. As a Muslim is expected to behave well in his/her social life, avoiding any injustice or offence to others, the same extends to non-Muslims, especially the ones living in a Muslim hand under the protection of Islamic law. Rather, Ahādith lay greater emphasis that such non-Muslims being vulnerable and in a minority situation should be dealt with more care and sympathy. The agreements contracted with them should not be violated in the slightest. If a non- Muslim seeks a Muslim’s opinion or suggestion about some matter, the latter should give it with utmost sincerity. Likewise, they should extend them all help and support on humanitarian grounds.
An unmistakable pointer to the Islamic directive for helping the needy non-Muslims financially is afforded by verse 272 of al-Baqarah. While addressing the Prophet, it declares that guidance rests only with Allah. It is beyond the Prophet’s power to make anyone attain guidance. Muslims are, nonetheless, told that all that they spend in Allah’s cause would benefit them. Tafsir scholars clarify that the above directives aims at dispelling the misperception entertained by some Muslims that charity money be given solely to Muslims. In his Ahkām al-Qur’an, Qurtubī points out that after the revelation of the above verse it was clearly established that charity money may be spent on helping everyone, including those outside the fold of Islam. For one’s acceptance or rejection of faith depends on Allah’s will. Abdullāh ibn Abbās, while relating the circumstantial setting of the above verse, indicates that Madinan Muslims shield away from giving charity money to the Jews in Madina. The verse explains to them that financial help to a needy person should not be tethered to his faith designation. After the revelation of the above verse, the Prophet and Companions received clear guidance and they provided monetary help to polytheists and Jews. The above report is shared by Tabari, Bayhaqi and Qatada. This Quranic directive assumes greater meaning in view of the conditions of the day. For these unbelievers were opposed tooth and nail to Muslims and engaged in all sorts of nefarious acts designed to obliterate Islam. Yet the Qur’an asked Muslims to render financial help to the needy non-Muslims. It speaks volumes about the tolerant, humane face of Islam.
In other spheres of social life too, Islam instructs Muslims to interact warmly with non-Muslims. First, eating together promotes a strong social bonding. Islam is clear on the issue that sharing food, provided it is lawful, with non-Muslims is perfectly all right. Included in it is the food, containing lawful ingredients, prepared by non-Muslims. For, as Abdullāh ibn Umar recounts that the Prophet took cheese imported from Syria, which was, of course, processed by non-Muslims there. By the same token, it is all right to invite non-Muslims to meal. The Prophet accepted invitations for meal from non-Muslims and provided them with hospitality. As to greeting non-Muslims on meeting them, while the customary Islamic formula may be used for Muslims, any other supplication may be employed for them, especially the one for their guidance. It is related that once the Prophet blessed a Jew and the latter enjoyed sound health and good looks until his death. Islamic teachings are clear that non-Muslim elites and dignitaries be meted out their due in a social gathering. Same holds true for calling on them, if they fall ill. The Prophet is on record having visited many ailing Makkan unbelievers. Fiqh books, therefore, recommend it. Take the following Hanafi ruling as illustrative: “There is nothing wrong in visiting a sick Jew or Christian. It is rather good manners to do so.” (Radd al-Mukhtar). It is equally permissible to join the funeral of a non-Muslim. According to Makhul, the Prophet had joined the funeral procession of his uncle, Abu Talib. The same practice was followed by the Prophet’s Companions.
Business is another important human activity in which men from all parts of the world and belonging to various faiths interact. Islam allows business and trade with non-Muslims, without any restriction in all lawful pursuits. That transactions may be had with non-Muslims is illustrated by Prophet’s example. In the later part of his career in Madina he pawned his armour with a Jew for getting grain (Bukhari, “Kitab Al- Bu’y” on the authority of Ayesha and Anas). In an Islamic state non- Muslims are entitled to carry out business and trade. Obviously, like Muslims they would observe state policy and not indulge in any economic activity which is disapproved by Islam. The business partnership with non-Muslims is borne out by the report that after the conquest of Khyber, the Prophet let Jews engage in farming on the condition that they give to Muslims the half of the produce. A Muslim may work for a non- Muslims employer. As Abdullah ibn Abbas informs, Ali ibn Abi Talib, on noting the lack of any food in the Prophet’s house, watered the agricultural field of a Jew. As his wage he received high quality dates which he presented to the Prophet. Some jurisprudents, however, clarify that Muslims should not work for a non- Muslim employer, if their business is unlawful or if it is likely to harm Muslims. These provisions are naturally followed by every self- respecting community. In today’s world of organized labour force and public institutions, working for a non-Muslim does not carry any longer the connotation of being subordinate to him. Therefore, a Muslim may legitimately join a firm or industrial house under non-Muslim control. A
Exchanging presents strengthens social ties: The Prophet is on record having sent gifts to non-Muslim heads of state. And he accepted their gifts as well. Ali endorses the above view, stating that the Prophet accepted the gifts sent to him by Persian and Roman emperors (Musnad Ahmad). Several Ahādith relate both his offering and accepting presents.
A Muslim’s life is governed and characterized by his love for and obedience to Allah. His first and foremost loyalty is, of course, to Allah and His Messenger. In the cause of serving Allah and His Messenger a Muslims readily sacrifices all that he has, his life and his ties with everyone. Notwithstanding this total and unswerving commitment a Muslim, as part of his religious obligation, is duty- bound to be just, kind and sympathetic to all living beings one. Since he stands for justice, truth and all higher values, it is his natural deportment to help all those in need and to have good social relations with everyone, including non- Muslims. Islam, despite its opposition to and rejection of all false notions of God does not bar Muslims from interacting with followers of other faiths. Rather, in the larger social interests and for ensuring happy, peaceful life on earth, it pointedly asks Muslims to behave well towards everyone, non-Muslims included. Throughout history Muslims have adhered to these life-giving teachings of Islam. Religious minorities have flourished in Muslim lands. Non-Muslims have enjoyed equal opportunities in Islamic state and professed and practicsed their respective faiths. Today, while the social scene in the world is emotionally surcharged and malicious propaganda is vigorously on, projecting Islam as intolerant and exclusivist, there is a greater need for recalling and observing the noble teachings of Islam or forging and maintaining cordial social relations with non-Muslims.
Notes
1 For a detailed discussion on the modern Western ethical discourse, please see Freud. The Future of an Illusion (1927), J S. Mill’s Three Essays on Religion, J.P. Reeder Jr and Gene H Outka (eds.) Religion and Morality: A Collection of Essays, New York 1973, W. G. Maclagen. The Theological Frontier of Ethics, New York, 1961, WW. Bartley, Morality and Religion, New York, 1971, William K. Frankena, Ethics, New Jersey. 1973 and Paul W. Taylor, Principles of Ethics An Introduction, California, 1975
2 Some of the Muslim writings on the Islamic Social Laws are Khurshid Ahmad (ed). Family Law of Islam, Lahore, 1962, M Iqbal Siddiqi, The Family Law of Islam, New Delhi, 1986, M.M. Siddiqui, Women in Islam, Lahore, 1959, A A. Hammudah, The Family Structure of Islam, Indianapolis, 1977, Waliullah Mir, Muslim Jurisprudence and the Qur’anic Law of Crimes, Lahore, 1982, M.M Sharif, Crime and Punishment in Islam, Lahore, 1972. and Mohammed S. el-Awa, Punishment in Islamic Law: A Comparative Study, Delhi, 1983
For a comprehensive up-to-date bibliography, please see Zafarul Islam’s Bibliography on Islamic Law published in The Muslim World Book Review, Islamic Foundation, Leicester (U.K.). Vol. 11 No. 1, Winter 1990 and Volume 11. No. 2, Winter 1991
The English translation of the Qur’anic passages has been taken, with slight modifications, from Abdullah Yusuf Ali’s revised The Holy Qur’an, Maryland, 1989, and Z. I. Ansari (tr.), Towards Understanding the Qur’an Vols. 1-2, Leicester, 1988-9.
[1] Hony. Director K. A. Nizami Centre for Qur’anic Studies Aligarh Muslim University, Email: sulaim 05@yahoo.co.in